2.3 Early Sino-British relations

The Industrial Revolution in Britain in the late 18th century greatly increased industrial production and created an urgent need for overseas markets for British goods.

China, with her large population, was seen as a prime target. But China, with her self-sufficient economy and traditional ethnocentric attitudes, quite naturally imposed many restrictions on foreign merchants, while Britain tried to sell unsuitable products to China.

Britain sent emissaries to China in 1793 and 1816 in the hope of improving trade relations, but both failed.

A third attempt was made in 1834 following the abolition of the British East India Company's monopoly on China trade.

Lord Napier was appointed British Superintendent of Trade in China in 1834 to negociate more favourable trade arrangements. His mission to Guangzhou failed and he died in Macau. Sino-British relations deteriorating still further.

Credit : History Museum of HK.

2.2 Foreign Trade in Guangzhou

In the interim period between the Ming and Qing dynasties, China prohibited traders from setting sail overseas, and trade in Guangzhou (Canton) quickly declined.

In 1685 the Qing government officially lifted the ban. Foreign trade was resumed and Customs offices were established at Guangzhou, Zhangzhou, Ningbo and Yuntai Shan.

In 1757 the Qing government, anxious to close strategic coastal places to foreigners, designated Guangzhou as their only port and introduced a set of restrictive regulations.

Foreigners were permitted to trade in Guangzhou only during the trading season, after which they had to leave China altogether, usually withdrawing to Macau.

The Qing government restricted trade with foreigners to certain Chinese merchants, the Hong merchants, and their firms were the so-called "Thirteen Hongs". In 1720 this arrangement became the Co-hong system.

Its role was broadened to include collecting Customs declarations from foreign merchants, communicating between them and the government, and even overseeing surveillance of their activities.

Foreign merchants' dissatisfaction with trade conditions in Guangzhou grew with the Hong merchants' exploitation of such wide-ranging powers, which were never relaxed despite many protests.

Credit : History Museum of HK.

2.1 The Coming of the Portuguese

The Portuguese took possession of Goa (India) in 1510 and Malacca (Malaya) in 1511, gaining control of the sea route to the East Indies. In Malacca they saw Chinese merchants trading silk, porcelain and pearls for spices, ginger and gold thread. This prompted the Portuguese to sail north to China to trade.

They arrived in Macau in 1514, and in 1557 obtained permission to settle there on payment of an annual rent, setting a precedent for European countries to lease land in China.

Credit : History Museum of HK.

2.0 New routes and Arrival of European traders

With the passing of the Dark Ages in Europe, the Renaissance ushered in a new era of discovery.

Adventurous seafarers in pursuit of riches and zealous Catholics intent on finding converts set sail to search for new lands. China, with her long history and legendary wealth, was an inevitable destination for European traders.

In 1498 the Portuguese navigator Vasco da Gama rounded the Cape of Good Hope at the southern tip of Africa and reached India.

The new sea route from Europe to the East he discovered provided an alternative to the land route via the Middle East which passed through the Muslim world.

The sea route later reached China and served endless contingents of European merchants who sailed there for trade, including Portuguese, British and Dutch.

Credit : History Museum of HK.